Herring Spawning

One of the great spectacles in North American wildlife watching is the Pacific herring spawning. It happens every year in late winter and early spring. Not only does the event produce the next generation of an important fish species, it also sustains the current generation of many other animals.

Pacific herring form an important strand in the food web. They are classified as forage fish, meaning they serve as meals for larger fish like salmon. As we'll see a little later, herrings feed the larger community beyond just the salmon.

Herring spawning turns the sea white (Prince William Sound Conservation Center) 

Herring move to shallower seas during spring, which happens to be right around the same time hungry humpback whales arrive from the tropics. The herring are looking for eelgrass or kelp beds for their sticky eggs to attach to. After the females lay their eggs over the vegetation, the males swim over and release their milt to fertilize the eggs.

Before reaching the spawning beds, the herring must navigate a maze of predators: sea lions, sea birds like cormorants and gulls, bald eagles, and those hungry, hungry humpbacks. Once the work is done, the eggs aren't safe and the smorgasbord continues as diving ducks pick them off. About two weeks later, the remaining eggs hatch and the herring larvae are carried by the tide and are subject to predation by fish of all shapes and sizes.

Herring eggs attached to kelp (US Geologic Survey)

With all that eating going on, it's a wonder any herring survive to adulthood. Females typically lay 20,000 eggs a year, and if she lives a long life, she'll do this three times. Multiply her by a million of her closest friends, and you have about 20 billion eggs. If only 1% hatch, that's 200 million baby herring.

Sea lions await their feast (Tillamook Coast)

In a good year, spawning herring will color the sea white. However, the spawning isn't nearly as good as it used to be. Overfishing is one reason, but loss of habitat (spawning and feeding areas) and pollution are also big contributors.
This week's information comes from Wayne Hoffman, Ph.D. and Washington Department of Natural Resources.
nm1: Prince William Sound Conservation Center https://pwssc.org/herring-spawn/
nm2: USGS https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/pacific-herring-eggs-macrophytes
nm3: Wayne Hoffman https://tillamookcoast.com/blog/spawning-of-pacific-herring/

Species of the Month

Wherever you live, fishing season is in full swing. This month we'll profile one of the most common game fishes, the rainbow trout. They can be found in lakes and streams almost everywhere around the world, though introduced to many of them.

Rainbow trout (State Department)

Scientific name: Oncorhynchus mykiss

Kingdom: Animalia (animals)

Class: Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)
Order: Salmoniformes 

Range: Pacific coast of North America from Alaska to Mexico

Habitat: Aquatic, some also have a marine phase

Lifespan: 6-8 years average, up to 11 years
Diet: Insects, insect larvae, crustaceans, small fish, algae
Predators: Lampreys, eagles, osprey, herons, mergansers, bears, mink, river otters, seals, sea lions, other fish, humans

Fish on! (NPS)

Conservation Status: No special protection for freshwater only fish; nine populations of steelhead are listed as threatened or endangered

Steelhead (NOAA Fisheries)

Other information: Rainbow trout get their name from a colorful iridescent streak along the sides of its body. State fish and game agencies around the country raise them to stock streams and lakes for fishing season. Stocked trout remain in freshwater; some native trout along the west coast are anadromous (have a saltwater phase) and return to their birthplace to spawn and die. The anadromous trout are called steelhead. Females lay eggs in a gravel nest called a redd. Fertilized eggs hatch after a few weeks, and the hatchling remains attached to the yolk sack as a food source before leaving the redd for the wider world. Young trout tend to stick to slower, shallow water. Young steelhead remain in the stream for up to three years before heading out to sea. Due to habitat degradation and loss, several western steelhead species are listed as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act. Meanwhile, introduced trout are becoming a problem in some areas. They eat and/or outcompete native fishes such as cutthroat and brook trout. They threaten genetic integrity by hybridizing with native species. They also carry a parasite responsible for whirling disease, which causes deformities that make a fish easier prey.

Steelhead (NOAA Fisheries)

This week's information comes from University of Michigan's Animal Diversity Web and the US State Department, of all places.

Animal Attraction

People are more like animals than we like to admit sometimes. Rather, we tend to believe that animals can be so human sometimes. One area where the lines between humans and animals can become blurred is that of courtship rituals and relationships. This Valentine’s Day let’s look at “love” in the animal world. Hopefully our finned, feathered, and furred friends don’t feel as awkward as we do.

Many times, in the animal world it is the female who chooses a mate. Males might compete with each other not by fighting, but other means. Bowerbirds build little houses with decorated yards to impress females. Prairie chickens and sage grouse gather in a lek, where the males display for the females. South American birds called manakins show like an 80s break dance fight from a movie. It reminds me of teenage boys trying to upstage each other to get a girl’s attention.

In other species, brute strength carries the day for males eager to win mating rights. Large mammals like elk and bison have a dominant male who controls a harem of females, unless a younger and stronger challenger is able to put him out to pasture. This behavior reminds me of countless schoolyard and lunchroom fights over a girl.

Once these critters become an item, how long does their relationship last? It depends on the critter, just like with us. Some species are monogamous pairs, some are promiscuous males, and some are promiscuous females. For those that have a hard time getting around, like corals and clams, it’s free love. Look around at our own society and you’ll see the same scenarios, though not always for the same reasons.

In promiscuous relationships it is the female who raises the young with no paternal help in most cases. The bison and elk, where a male controls a harem, are male promiscuous. He will mate with as many of the females as he can. His goal is to have as many offspring as possible, while the female’s goal is ensure that her offspring have the best chance of survival. Surely the strongest and most fit of the males has the genes that offer better odds.

Sometimes it is the female who gets around. Several species of primates and birds practice this. The female hopes for better reproductive success by keeping her options open. It may also have the advantage that comes with several males all believing the offspring are theirs. Since the male’s goal is to have as many offspring as possible, the uncertainty will make sure they are looking out for any that are potentially theirs.

Everyone’s favorite relationship is monogamy. A pair mates for life and we think it’s so sweet. It’s almost like they’re married. This behavior is seen in bald eagles and gray wolves, for example. In this situation, both parents care for the young. In most cases, the pair nest together year-round. Not so for the Laysan albatross like Wisdom, who we met a few weeks ago. While she has a monogamous partner, they spend most of the year apart, coming together only for the breeding season. Once they chicks fledge the nest, they all go their separate ways. Wisdom and her mate will see each other again next year.

The messiest mating strategy is dispersal. Wind pollenating plants (think of pine trees) use this method, as do many sea creatures. Some environmental cue triggers corals, clams, and other sessile critters to release sperm and egg cells simultaneously. The sea becomes a soupy mess as the currents mix everything together. The pinnacle of group sex, critters who have never met or even seen each other become proud parents of children drifting off to parts unknown.

Every species is adapted to whatever mating and parenting style works best to ensure the next generation will survive. A general rule of thumb: fewer offspring get more intense parenting, while more offspring get little to no parental care. Either way, parents are playing the percentages to make sure they win the mating game.

 This week's information comes from Nature Education and the Washington Post.

Species of the Month

January has been a snowy month for me, so it seems fitting that the Species of the Month be equally snowy. A few weeks ago we learned about the snowy owl, but now we’ll look at another white bird from the cold, snowy north- the snow goose.

Scientific name: Anser caerulescens

Kingdom: Animalia (animals)

Class:   Aves (birds)

Order: Anseriformes (ducks, geese, and swans)

Range: Summer range is eastern Arctic Canada and Greenland; winter range is Gulf Coast and Midwest states. They don’t fly nonstop, so there is migratory habitat in between.

Habitat: Tundra, marshes, tide flats, prairies, farmland

Lifespan: 20 years, on average

Diet: Roots, grasses, sedges

Predators: Arctic foxes, jaegers, eagles

Conservation Status: No special conservation status

Other Information: The snow goose has two color morphs, white and dark gray (known as blue goose). Blue goose was originally considered a separate species. Snow geese are a popular game bird. Due to rising populations, they are considered an agricultural pest in some areas. The black mark on the bill is sometimes referred to as lipstick or the grin patch. They mate for life. The female incubates the eggs while the male stands guard over her. They sometimes nest near snowy owls, which may deter predators. Nesting colonies can contain tens of thousands of birds. The snow goose is model for the National Wildlife Refuge System's logo.

National Wildlife Refuge System's logo

This week's information comes from University of Michigan's Animal Diversity Web. Photos are from Missouri Department of Conservation, except the logo.

Snow goose

Blue goose color morph

Thousands of snow geese in flight

Endangered Species

This week Nature Minute will take a look at something most have never seen before- endangered species. You may have seen one or two because there are so many species that are endangered, but most likely not because there are so few of each species. They come in all shapes and sizes, from lichens to flowers to trees and from insects to corals to snails to whales.

In legal terms, an endangered species is defined by the Endangered Species Act (ESA) as being in danger of becoming extinct. A companion term in ESA is a threatened species, which is under threat of becoming endangered. ESA requires protection for endangered and threatened species as well as their habitat, because how can a species survive without having a place to live?

While ESA is an American law, it also extends global protection to species listed as threatened or endangered wherever they may be found. For example, the cheetah is listed as a foreign endangered species. While US laws regarding the conservation of cheetahs and their habitat can’t be enforced in Africa, the extent of the law here at home prohibits trafficking in them and other foreign endangered species.

Currently there are close to 2000 threatened and endangered species just in the US. When a species is listed, the appropriate state and federal agencies must develop a recovery plan. The recovery plan outlines how to increase the species population and preserve habitat and specifies a target population to be considered sustainable so the species can be delisted. Lead federal agencies that oversee ESA listing and recovery plans are the US Fish and Wildlife Service for terrestrial species and National Marine Fisheries Service works with oceanic critters. Both partner with state fish and wildlife agencies, local and tribal governments, private organizations.

My time in the field gave me the opportunity to work on conservation projects aimed at species recovery. I was even lucky enough to see some of the species I was trying to help.

In the US, four of the five Pacific salmon species (pinks are excluded) are listed as threatened or endangered. I volunteered with the Nisqually Land Trust, an organization that works to preserve and enhance salmon habitat. Although the salmon is a fish, salmon habitat begins with healthy forests that keep the rivers cool and clean.

Chinook salmon returning to spawn

I also volunteered with the Center for Natural Lands Management on two prairie preserves. I removed invasive blackberries and Scotch broom from the Glacial Heritage Natural Area and also collected wildflower seeds from there and the Mima Mounds Natural Area. The work I did was to open space for native plants to grow and collect seeds for propagation at other sites. The prairies are home to the endangered Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly, Mazama pocket gopher, and golden paintbrush, a flower. 

Golden paintbrush

Mazama pocket gopher (US Fish and Wildlife)

Taylor's checkerspot (US Fish and Wildlife)

My list of endangered species that I’ve seen in their natural habitat is short, but probably longer than most other people’s. I’ve seen the beluga whale (Alaska), golden paintbrush (Washington), Chinook salmon (Washington), black-footed ferret (South Dakota), and West Indian manatee (Florida).

Black-footed ferret (National Park Service)

West Indian manatee

I am glad that we have ESA to protect endangered species. Several, such as the bald eagle and the alligator, are considered recovered and have been delisted. The road to recovery takes a long time, and sadly the list gets longer as new species are added before the existing species recover. 

Bald eagle

American alligator (National Park Service)

My only regret about ESA is that it takes a reactive approach to protecting species with critically low populations, rather than a proactive approach that prevents them from needing to be listed in the first place. For more information on the Endangered Species Act visit the US Fish and Wildlife website here.

Road Trip Adventure- Black Hills

One of my favorite areas in the US is the Black Hills of South Dakota. I first visited the area in 1990 en route to Alaska. Passing through, we stopped at Mount Rushmore. I always wanted to return, and I did in 2007 when moving from Pennsylvania to Washington. However, we were short on time and money so all we got to do was cruise through with another stop at Mount Rushmore. While living in Washington, I always hoped for a vacation that would give me at least a week in the Black Hills. This summer, as part of the Nature Minute road trip, I was able to return for a few days. Enjoy another story from the road.

What makes the Black Hills, or Paha Sapa as the Sioux call it, such a special place? To the Sioux, Paha Sapa is sacred as the heart of the world, and from space it actually looks like a human heart (from Native Americans Online). To me, it’s just this wonderful mix of pine trees and granite rising above the Great Plains. I felt like I was on top of the world. It’s also melting pot of sorts, as the northern and eastern forests converge with the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains.

Black Hills from space (from Four Winds 10)

The Black Hills were originally part of the Sioux reservation until gold was discovered there. The land was stolen and Custer was involved, but that’s another story for another blog. We’re here to focus on nature, and there are a few natural areas protected within the Black Hills. I didn’t get to spend my week there and I didn’t hike at all, but the three areas I got to see from the car were Black Hills National Forest, Wind Cave National Park, and Custer State Park.

The Needles, granite spires in the Black Hills

Black Hills NF is the largest of the three, covering most of the Black Hills. It’s a working, mixed use forest, meaning it is shared by loggers, wildlife, campers, and other recreational users. Ponderosa pine, spruce, birch, and aspen are common trees. Wildlife includes elk, mule and white-tailed deer, coyotes, mountain lions, mountain goats, and bighorn sheep. Birds of prey such as bald eagles and many songbirds are also present.

White-tailed deer right outside our campground

Coyote

Mountain lion

Wind Cave NP is on the fringes of the Black Hills. Eastern tallgrass prairie mixes with western shortgrass prairie topside, while the largest cave in America sits largely unexplored beneath the surface. Mammals there include bison, prairie dogs, black-footed ferrets. More on this location will follow in another Nature Minute.

Prairie dogs

Custer State Park hosts bison and pronghorn herds, along with majestic vistas of rolling hills, vast prairies, and interesting rock formations. It also sits on the fringes, just north of Wind Cave NP.

Bison herd

Pronghorn

Black Hills scenery

Black Hills scenery

How did the Black Hills magically rise above the rest of the prairie? The mountains formed as a result of volcanic activity and uplift in the Tertian period. The central portion is made of granite, pegamite, and sedimentary rock, ringed by increasingly younger layers of sedimentary rock. In most cases, when viewing layers of rock, the older layers are on the bottom. However, there are some areas in the Black Hills where due to uplifting and folding, the older layers are actually on top.

The Black Hills have something to offer, no matter what your interests. History, wildlife, scenery, culture, geology- this place has it all! If you are ever trying to decide where to go for vacation, consider South Dakota.

This week's information comes from Native Americans Online, Black Hills National Forest, and Carleton College.

Nature Minute Road Trip- Wolves of Yellowstone

Predators are an essential part of a healthy ecosystem. Owls and snakes might be patrolling your neighborhood, keeping the rodent population in check and out of your house. Birds and bats target pest insects. Top-level predators, the large killing machines, are equally important but have suffered from human ignorance. To demonstrate the importance of top-level predators, enjoy the story of the gray wolf and how its return impacted life in and around Yellowstone National Park. This is the first story from the Nature Minute Road Trip. 

Wolves were extirpated (made locally extinct) from Yellowstone in the 1930s. They were a menace to neighboring ranches’ livestock and preying on the park’s more charismatic wildlife like bison and elk. Mind you, this took place before the National Park Service placed much emphasis on the “preservation” part of its mission and focused more on the “enjoyment” part. This was a time of public bear feedings.

Gray wolf (in captivity)

By the time 1995 came around, the elk population had gotten out of hand. After much deliberation, a wolf pack from Canada was transported to Yellowstone. The wolves were carefully selected to ensure that their preferred prey was elk, since that was the target species for culling. Yes, different wolves prefer different prey, but they will switch depending on availability.

Elk

The wolves were placed in kennels to quarantine them and let them acclimate to their new surroundings before being released into the wild. Contact with rangers and biologists was limited so they wouldn’t get used to being around people. After release, the fun began.

With large predators on the loose again, the elk had to adapt. They began spending less time in open areas. Lower elk numbers combined with elk lifestyle changes led to young trees growing. Previously, the elk had eaten nearly all new trees before they had a chance to reach maturity. With new trees like willows growing in the river bottoms, beavers began migrating back to Yellowstone. The new trees, even newer beaver ponds, and lower coyote populations (out competed for food by the larger wolves) brought in a host of birds and small mammals that had left. With the birds came smaller predators like foxes and hawks. 

Wolf being released at Yellowstone (NPS photo)

The leftovers from wolf kills attracted more corvids (ravens, crows, and magpies) and benefited eagles (bald and golden) as well as bears (black and grizzly). The absence of elk in the river bottoms and the emergence of trees there changed the course of rivers by stabilizing the banks. This was a two-fold move. The elk were eroding the banks with their constant trampling and the trees added stability by holding soils and rocks in place.

The wolf reintroduction was not without its critics, people we will call lupophobes for their fear of the wolf. People to this day still deny that the wolf reintroduction has done any benefit for the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Science hasn’t proven that all these changes are caused directly by the wolf’s presence, but it does prove that the benefits took place after. You decide. I'd been to Yellowstone before the return of the wolf, but I barely remembered any of it, let alone enough to do a before and after comparison.

This week's wolf information and picture come from the National Park Service.

Species of the Month

Celebrate America with July’s Species of the Month. An American icon, the bald eagle is synonymous with freedom and power. Looking at them through a naturalist's eyes, they are also a symbol graceful elegance, keen vision, and superb scavenging skills.

Eagle in flight over Puget Sound

Scientific name: Haliaeetus leucocephalus

Kingdom: Animalia (animals)

Class: Aves (birds)

Order: Falconiformae (daytime birds of prey)

Range: Subarctic North America south to Mexico

Habitat: Large trees typically near water (freshwater or saltwater)

Lifespan: 15-19 years

Diet: fish (freshwater or saltwater), water birds (murres, herons, geese, etc), squirrels, voles, otter pups, rats, carrion, human garbage          

Predators: Adults not subject to predation; eggs and young are preyed upon by bears, raccoons, wolverines, bobcats, foxes, gulls, and corvids

Conservation Status: Species of least concern

Bath time (Photo by Ken Sutliff)

The intense gaze (Photo by Ken Sutliff)

Other Information: The bald eagle has been the US national symbol since 1782, despite objections from Ben Franklin. Listed as endangered in 1978, populations have rebounded dramatically and it was delisted in 2007, an Endangered Species Act success story. Some eagles are migratory, others are year-round residents, depending on location. In addition to hunting and scavenging, some will steal food from other species, particularly osprey. Bald eagles have a long lifespan. Eggs have a low success rate but one-year mortality rates are low. They mate for life but may take a new mate after one dies. Mating rituals include death-defying aerobatics. Bald eagles go through several color morphs before maturing into baldness at age five. Immature bald eagles are frequently confused with golden eagles. Bald eagles are extremely shy and will avoid humans as much as possible. I have a hard time sneaking up on them to get close enough for a good picture.

A whole pile of bald eagles over Mashel River in Eatonville, WA

This week’s information comes from University of Michigan’s Animal Diversity Web: http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Haliaeetus_leucocephalus/ and special thanks to Ken Sutliff for the bald eagle photos.